Religious and Ethnic Groups Essay

Buddhism is a religious group as depicted from the world’s history that began in the 6th century BCE, in today’s Northern India. Buddhism was founded by a wealthy man of Indian dysentery called Siddhartha Gautama. Siddhartha Gautama’s main concern was to teach people how to realize great spiritual development. These teachings focus on areas like tradition/customs, beliefs, ethics, meditation and philosophy and making people more enlightened; Buddha means ‘to awaken’. To the religious group boast of a huge following of about 300million across the world including 0. 7 percent of U. S. A’s religious composition based on U. S’s Census Bureau Document (Seager, 2012). Buddhism is a religious group that differs broadly from other groups in America. The difference is eminent in the way they carry out various practice. Some examples are worship, beliefs, culture, doctrines, and in other routine practices. Buddhism, unlike other religious groups, believes in the existence of only one Supreme Being ‘God’. In contrast to most groups, Buddhism spirituality is of personal discipline rather than faith in ‘God’. A lot of differences may be present when attempting to draw a comparison between Buddhism and the other religious groups in America. Buddhists Experience in America Buddhism has received its fair deal of mixed reception from other religious avenue. Some people have good perception and understand their teachings seek to uphold good morals and values. Buddhism also seeks a harmonious co-existence with other people in society even if they are not practicing the same religion. Others have perceived them as having a bizarre view deeming its operation as being mysterious. Buddhism is unique in conducting their routine religious practices and beliefs. Some religious groups have upheld Buddhism, not as a religion but merely a philosophy (Seager, 2012). They have even incorporated some practices like meditation as an art of realization physical and emotional well being as yoga in pursuit of reliving off stress. They have also sorted in some Buddhism cultural element and used them to perfect their own religions. Contribution and Discrimination of Buddhism Historically in American culture Buddhism has contributed adversely in development of America’s culture. Many Buddhists doctrine and daily routine practices are borrowed and used to blend America’s culture. Example of such practice teachings of how people perceive life and attitude, changed Buddhism has mentored Great America’s scientists and philosophers (Seager, 2012). They borrow ideas from Buddhism teachings. Some of the ways in which Buddhism is practiced in America include stress reduction treatment. In addition, famous movies and songs based on Buddhism, such as Seven Years in Tibet, Little Buddha, The Matrix, and Star Wars, has helped the advertisement industry. Another instance is the Master Card commercial that shows an image of Woman Meditating. There is an increasing number of Americans who visit the Buddhist temples and also practice meditation in privacy. Buddhist Fellowship organization is a very large group that promotes peace, environmental advocacy, and conducts homeless and prison outreach. Buddhism has experienced discrimination minimally compared to other religious groups. Discrimination happens within its own religion and culture primarily against Buddhist women. All Buddhist women are ordained to follow laws and disciplines such as bhikkhunis. However, Buddhist nuns have come together to fight for their rights. The source of this prejudice was because the Buddhist nuns have increased in number and they want to eliminate them from the religion. Buddhism has helped me learn about meditation which can be used in reducing stress and as a way of relaxing. Asian Ethnic Group The Asian American comprises of a 5% of the American population (Espiritu, 2011). In the recent years, the Asian ethnic group is considered among the fastest growing group in America. The Americans refer to subgroups such as the Chinese, Filipino, Indians, Koreans, Japanese and Vietnamese. Most Asian Americans were born in America while others have been the immigrants who have settled in America. Asian differs from the other ethnic groups because from history Asians have continued to follow their religions, unlike many other groups. The Asian Americans are known for their diligence, strong family values and their respect for education, authority, and discipline unlike any other ethnic group in America. Asian American Contribution and Discrimination The Asian American has contributed greatly in the formation of American society. These contributions include constructions of railway, joining the military and protecting the Americans. Asians have also contributed in creating internet sites such as youtube and yahoo. The Asians have influenced other areas like fashion, religion, science and culture. For instance, the kung fu culture of the Chinese is greatly employed in Hollywood while creating action movies. Acts of discrimination towards Asian Americans in America are similar to other minority group. This racial discrimination bars the Asian American from participating in politics (Espiritu, 2011). The reason Asian Americans are discriminated against is Americans consider them foreigners. In conclusion, Buddhism is an Asian practice which the Asian have practiced almost all their lives, but this practice came to be known only in recent years. Discrimination of Asian Americans means that their religion, cultures, and practices are discriminated against. Buddhism is different from Asian Ethnic group because Buddhism is a practice done by the Asian communities. Discrimination should never be practiced in America because America is a multicultural society and the majority of people in America are citizens by birth. References Espiritu, Y. L. (2011). Asian American pan ethnicity: Bridging institutions and identities. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Seager, R. H. (2012). Buddhism in America. New York: Columbia University Press.

Fita Analyzation

I. Narrative structure â€Å"YES OR OO†, which is the word that would love the guy to hear from the girl he is courting, but there are times that the girls, means this in a more different way. And that’s what FITA commercial wants to show us with the use of their product. The story of the FITA commercial is about a suitor who doesn’t figure out that the girl he is courting, answered him already. And the story goes like this. . . The guy (suitor) fetched Claris, the girl he is courting in the gymnasium. He grabbed the bag of Claris and put it on his back, Claris saw the FITA biscuit in the pocket of her bag then she grabbed and opened it. While they are walking inside the gym, the guy started to whine over Claris and told her that he’s courting her for about 2 years and yet there’s nothing happened with their relationshipand said â€Å"kailan ko ba maririnig ang matamis mong oo? †The guy look back at Claris then she raised a two pieces of FITA biscuit in her hands while smiling at him and finally decide to accept the guys love thru showing him the biscuit, depicting OO, or YES. The guy just grabbed the piece of FITA and jut ate it and said that â€Å"naghihintay na lng ba ko sa wala? † So Claris frowned and just ate the FITA she’s holding. The commercial is a dramatic comedy in a way that when the guy didn’t get what Claris means by showing the 2 pieces of FITA. II. Characters â€Å"The next hottest love team in town† That’s what the 2 main characters in the commercial wants to portray. The leading man is the suitor named Arran Sese in real life that is good looking, stands 5’9†w /white complexion and a dark brown hair. In the commercial, he is a college student that’s somewhat 18 to 20 yrs. ld and he’s voice is natural and there’s no something strange about it but he speaks very well specially when he whined with Claris, acts as the leading lady, named Amanda Lapus in real life with an angelic face who stands 5’7†w/ a white complexion and a black shiny hair. Again in the comm ercial, Claris is the girl who is being courted by the guy. They did not directly advertise the product by saying that people should buy FITA; instead, they used it as props in the commercial. They help sell the products by showing humility that remarks in the mind of the viewers of what the guy did, that he didn’t get that Claris already means yes.

Poverty As A Cause Of Crime Essay

Poverty remains a critical social problem that needs to be addressed. Philippines’ poverty line marks a per capita income of 16,841 pesos a year. According to the data from the national statistical coordination board, more than one-quarter (27.9%) of the population fell below the poverty line the first semester of 2012, an approximate 1 per cent increase since 2009. This figure is a much lower figure as compared to the 33.1% in 1991. The unevenness of the decline of poverty has been attributed to a large range of income brackets across regions and sectors, and unmanaged population growth. The Philippines poverty rate is roughly the same level as Haiti. The government planned to eradicate poverty as stated in the Philippines development plan 2011-2016 (PDP). The PDP for those six years are an annual economic growth of 7-8% and the achievement of the millennium development goals (MDGS). Under the MDGS, Philippines committed itself to having extreme poverty from a 33.1% in 1991 t o 16.6% by 2015. see more:essays on crimes Poverty reduction has not kept up with GDP growth rates, largely due to the high unemployment rate, high inflation rate and wide income inequality. The official rate of unemployment for 2012 in the Philippines was 6.8 per cent. Crime, the term crime denotes an unlawful act punishable by a state. The term crime does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition, though statutory definitions have been provided for certain purposes. The most popular view is that crime is a category created by law. In ordinary language, the term crime denotes an unlawful act punishable by a state. The term crime does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition, though statutory definitions have been provided for certain purposes. The most popular view is that crime is a category created by law. Poverty and crime have a very intimate relationship that has been described by experts from all fields, from sociologists to economists. The UN and the World Bank both rank crime high on the list of obstacles to a country’s development. This means that governments trying to deal with poverty often also have to face the issue of crime as they try to develop their country’s economy and society. In the countries where social discrimination factor isn’t very strong, results have shown that less education meant more criminal offenses ranging from property to casual theft and drug-related offenses. It appears  that in fact, poverty itself more tied with violence, criminal damage and also drug use- as a catalyst to violence. There are huge consequences of this kind of research for public policy and the positive impact of keeping children in school and reducing poverty.

Letter of Intent Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Letter of Intent - Essay Example The researcher states that admission into McGill's Counseling Psychology program will not only fulfill the career ambitions, it will also fulfill the purpose in life. The researcher would like to devote his energies to showcase the effects of parenting on a child's overall development. It is a subject that the researcher naturally holds close to his heart. McGill University has been his preferred university since he was 16 years old, living in Malaysia. At the time, the author was looking at education options while planning to run away to Canada as a naive teen. The McGill University with its prestigious accolades, facilities and student life, was an easy winner. Since then, the author has always wanted to study at McGill and now armed with a Psychology degree from New Zealand, the next step is clear. The researcher picked Counseling Psychology because he wants to be out on the field working with people. Besides being able to work with some of the most respected psychologists in this program, the author is drawn to the non-thesis aspect of it. The researcher is happiest when the assessment is continuous and hands-on performance is evaluated - he performs at his peak that way as he likes taking challenges head-on. In addition, the author is attracted to the certification as a counselor one receives at the end of the program, with the option of doing a Ph.D. later on. Currently, he is volunteering as a childcare facilitator at the Young Parents Program in NDG and as a research aide at the Talwar's Research Center at McGill. Along with that, the author is also working as a freelance writer to save up for his post-grad fund. Prior to this, the author was an international student mentor in his alma maters where he provided mentoring, guidance and English language aid to students from China and Japan. The researcher really loves working with people and he enjoys being a positive part of their life. The researcher confesses that his time as an international student me ntor was the happiest moments of his life. It was a start to the discovery of his career path to be a counselor. Although the author may not have stellar results like some of his peers, he has a lot to offer in terms of his personal interest, future plans in this field and the will to accomplish whatever it takes to make this ambition work. The researcher is prepared to work extremely hard to get to where and what he wants. He is even proud of his apparently meager accomplishments because at one point in time, graduating itself had seemed a tall order for him. To cut a long story short, the author had not been making the right choices in life but he has since bounced back. The researcher has learned through the counsel of one very remarkable lecturer that the choices in life are mine to make, and mine to live with, regardless of the circumstances or his upbringing. The researcher is taking that advice again as he is writing this letter. The researcher is making the choice to seek en trance in one of the toughest programs at McGill University because he knows he is worth it.

Business ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

Business ethics - Essay Example A person cannot be tortured because one has moral rights. Immanuel Kant is a famous philosopher who proposed a theory named categorical imperative. Categorical imperative is based on the moral principle and it is like a command to tell people what can be done and what cannot. The theory claims that everyone is a free person who has moral right and correlative duty to be compared with another in this way. Kant proposed two formulations of categorical imperative. Kant gives us a term â€Å"maxim† which can be explained as follows: â€Å"A maxim for Kant is the reason a person in certain situation has for doing what he or she plans to do. A maxim would â€Å"become a universal law† if every person in a similar situation chose to do the same thing for the same reason.† (p99) According to the definition of maxim, we can understand the first formulation easily. First formulation of Kant’s categorical imperative is that we only can act according to the reasons th at we want others to do the same toward us in a similar situation, which means transpositonal consideration. Furthermore, the action is morally right if a person acts by a reason to others in a certain situation that he or she has the willing to let others treat him or her in the same situation. If the person cannot have the willing to have others to act the same way that he or she acts towards others, the action is morally wrong. The first formulation has two criteria to estimate whether an action is morally right or wrong. The first criterion is universality that means â€Å"the person’s reasons for acting must be reasons that everyone could act on at least in principle.† (p99) The second criteria is reversibility that means â€Å"the person’s reasons for acting must be reasons that that person would be willing to have all others use, even as a basis of how they treat him or her† (p99). The second formulation

Module 1 Case MGT401 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Module 1 Case MGT401 - Essay Example This is so especially if he trust no one to take the position and lead it effectively. It is for reason that it was no surprise when he fired the CEO of Fiat and appointed himself the CEO. The CEO’s level of emotional stability is simply amazing. It is this emotional stability that has made him the great leader he is today as he does not let his emotions over the employee’s future if he fires them stand in his way and affect his decision making ability. Machionne is one highly intelligent man based on the fact that he was able to turn the company’s profitability around which was on the verge of collapse and did so within two years (2011 All-Stars: Sergio Marchionne, 2011). This is simply an impossible job for a simple-minded and unintelligent individual. The fact that he upholds integrity high is not only commendable but has protected his name and made it remains clear from any scandals involving integrity issues. It is his personality and high standards that make him uphold his integrity and abide by the rules at all times. Machionne is an analyst using logic to make his decisions. His abilities to strategize as well as be inventive and imaginative make him the perfect leader he is. He may not have an approachable personality but he still makes friends and is an excellent communicator. A task-oriented leader is one who focuses solely on the tasks that need to be performed and is in no way concerned about the people performing the tasks such as ensuring they are motivated or satisfied. This is the kind of behavioral approach that Machionne has adopted as he does not bother with his team and their general well-being but simply whether they have performed the tasks he assigns to them or not. This explains his lack of small talk with his employees and especially the executives and the occupation even over the weekend simply with work and no fun at all for the employees (Wernle, 2010). The greatest

Memo to Paul Taylor - AM Equipment Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Memo to Paul Taylor - AM Equipment - Term Paper Example One of the major steps that AM should take is to prepare going global. This entails establishing of various managerial positions that will be responsible for overseeing effective distribution of the products in the new markets. In its efforts to enter the three foreign markets, AM should establish an export sales department. Based on the fact that the company is currently based in US, the export sales department will ensure linkage between the production facilities is US and the sales outlets in the three countries. Additionally, AM should employ skilled marketing managers who will be responsible for overseeing the company subsidiaries located in the foreign countries. One of the advantages of the export sales department and the hiring of experienced marketing managers is that new policies such as effective pricing, extensive promotion and creating strong customer awareness will be created. For instance, the company will emulate penetrative pricing policy (Joshi 47). Through this pol icy, AM will enter the new markets using low prices without compromising the quality of its products. This will ensure that it acquires large customer base. However, the company will need more financial resources to cater for the marketing managers wages. ... After preparing to go global, AM should find the right market that will provide ready market for its products and skilled human resources. One of the key factors to consider is the population of the foreign countries. Additionally, the company should take into consideration the competition, political stability and regulatory environment among other factors. Being one of the developing economies with large population, South Africa is a viable country that AM should enter. In the same way, Britain and Australia have strong economies and high customer’s purchasing power thus proving a market opportunity that will enhance the sales and the profitability of the company. It is also vital to note that in order to encourage investments, South Africa, Britain and Australia have flexible regulatory environment that is essential for foreign direct investments. For example, South Africa has entered into double taxation agreement with US. As a result, AM will not face a lot of taxation cha llenges that may hinder its operations in the country. Additionally, South Africa taxation for foreign companies stands at 35% which is not so high. One of the major aspect that make the three countries viable markets that AM should consider is that they experience political stability that is essential for foreign and local investments. Even though AM Equipment Incorporation will be exposed to stiff competition from the well established firm in the three countries, the company will undertake extensive advertisement and promotion thus effectively putting at bay its competitors. Based on the political and technological development in the three countries, AM will benefit from adequate availability of classical factors of production that includes labor, capital, land and

Macroeconomics College Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Macroeconomics College - Essay Example 1. Exchange arrangements with no separate legal tender - These are countries that belong to a currency union where there is a common legal tender that are used by all the members. An example of this is the Eurodollar of the European Union. 2. Currency board arrangements - a kind of exchange rate regime implemented by the government based on an explicit legislative commitment in exchanging its local currency for a specific foreign currency with corresponding restrictions that ensures the compliance of its legal obligation. 3. Conventional fixed peg arrangements - a country's exchange rate regime that pegs its currency within margins of less that 1 percent as compared with another currency; a cooperative arrangement; or a basket of currencies, "where the basket is formed from the currencies of major trading or financial partners and weights reflect the geographical distribution of trade, services, or capital flows." 4. Pegged exchange rates within horizontal bands - The currency's value "is maintained within certain margins of fluctuation of more than 1 percent around a fixed central rate or the margin between the maximum and minimum value of the exchange rate exceeds 2 percent." 5. ... 6. Exchange rates within crawling bands - The currency is maintained within certain fluctuation margins of at least 1 percent around a central rate-or the margin between the maximum and minimum value of the exchange rate exceeds 2 percent-and the central rate or margins are adjusted periodically at a fixed rate or in response to changes in selective quantitative indicators. 7. Managed floating with no predetermined path for the exchange rate - influence of the monetary authority to the exchange rate is done herein without having a specific exchange rate path or target. 8. Independently floating - Under this the market is the one that determines the exchange rate. The central bank intervenes in the foreign exchange market with the aim to moderate the rate of change and to prevent "undue fluctuations in the exchange rate," rather than imposing a level for it (De Facto Classification of Exchange Rate Regimes and Monetary Policy Framework). It is the responsibility of a nation's central bank to choose the appropriate exchange rate regime for its own country. Economic managers, particularly central bank heads, in a country use this as a tool to maintain economic stability. The importance of having the appropriate and fitting exchange rate regime for a specific country is to protect the country from its susceptibility to create economic problems because of its monetary authority's power. Each type of exchange-rate regimes manifests diverse characteristics and produces different results. Reclassifying the existing de facto exchange rate regimes enumerated above will result into the fusion of the eight regimes into three: floating, fixed and pegged exchange rate. For Hanke

Weather and climate Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Weather and climate - Assignment Example The second model shows that the station had a dew point temperature of 60oF and a maximum temperature of 63oF,a barometric pressure of 998mb and a sky cloud coverage 50%. From the second model again I can be noted that the place had a thunderstorm of accompanied by intermittent rainfall (Roger 2010). In the models that answers these questions, it can be observed that in the first model, the station experienced a barometric pressure of 117mb, maximum temperature of 43oF and a minimum temperature of 20oF, the sky was clear, the wind blew from the South west with a speed of 25knots. The pressure change was higher in the last three hours at a +17 with a rising pressure tendency (Roger 2010). In the second model, it can be clearly seen that the station had a barometric pressure of 997mb, the wind blew from the North West, the temperature was 27oF and the dew point temperature was 20oF, there was continuous snow flakes. The amount of precipitation in the last 6 hours was .31, there was also a falling pressure tendency with a falling pressure change of -11 in the last 3hours (Roger

How Nonprofit Volunteerism Has Changed Over the Years Research Paper

How Nonprofit Volunteerism Has Changed Over the Years - Research Paper Example The researcher states that Martin Luther King, Jr. said, â€Å"Lifes most persistent and urgent question is: ‘What are you doing for others?’† A general definition of volunteerism or volunteer is a person who voluntarily undertakes or expresses a willingness to undertake a service or one who renders a service or takes part in a transaction while having no legal concern or interest. In a way, volunteerism can be looked upon as servant leadership.   According to author Robert K. Greenleaf, the servant-leader is the servant first.   Volunteerism begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve and is also able to do so.   Then conscious brings one to aspire to lead.   The best test for becoming a servant leader is to ask if those served to grow as persons:   do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, and more likely themselves to become servants?   Also, it is essential to assess what is the effect on the least pr ivileged in society. It is important to ask if the volunteer act will benefit the disadvantages section, or, at least, not further deprived them. Volunteers are essential components of most nonprofit programs as they provide services to clientele who might not otherwise be served. As such, it can be stated that volunteerism is an important service that enables the non-profit organizations to manage their resources and deliver on their goals. As with any movement, volunteerism has undergone significant changes over the years. This study would trace the changes in the volunteering trends in the US and Canada and highlight the various aspects that are responsible for the changing trends.

What are the contributing factors to the onset of delinquency in Research Paper

What are the contributing factors to the onset of delinquency in adolescents - Research Paper Example The sample population will be 30 respondents; we chose this number since huge sample will results to huge data. Huge amount of data will be difficult to analyse and its time consuming. In essence, we shall be specific on the characteristic of the sample population we will be conducting our research. Accessing large population can be difficult and time consuming. Moreover, this technique will generate in-depth data on the particular study. This research will base respondents on their family history of single parents/ broken family/parental history of crime/ friends of children with deviant behavior. The age group of the children will be between 11-15 years. Independent and dependent variables: peer group, family history of crimes, previous history of deviant behavior, involvement in truancy are the independent variables and delinquent behavior is the dependent variable. Reliability and validity of instruments: Validity is the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. We shall identify and generalize the contributing factors like broken families and peer influence. Therefore, external validity is measured on the degree to which the sample measures a particular population. Content validity may be measured by checking the representative questions related to delinquency from areas of both broken families and peer influence. Reliability is the consistency of the instrument. In this hypothesis, reliability may be measured by administering the questions to the raters and check the consistency of the answers to each question. Data Collection and Methods: Primary data method will be used to generate the factual data for the easiness of reporting. Age, gender, residence are the standard variables used. Questions will be covering details like habits, hobbies, friends, knowledge regarding the crime systems Data will

In Civil Peace, How Does War Affect Society Essay Example for Free

In Civil Peace, How Does War Affect Society Essay In human history, especially in the ninetieth century and the twentieth century, there were many civil wars in different countries because of political, economic, religious, ethnic, and cultural conflicts, for example, the American Civil War between the United States and several southern slaves states from 1861 to 1865; the Korean Civil War between the Republic of Korea and Democratic people Republic of Korea from 1950 to 1953; the Chinese Civil War between the Republic of China and the Communist Party of China from 1927 to 1950, and the Nigeria Civil War between the Hausas Party and the Igbo Party from 1967 to 1970. Civil wars cause serious poverty and starvation for the people, kill tens of thousands of soldiers and civilians, and bring tragedies to many families. For instance, in the Korean Civil war, more than one million soldiers and civilians were killed, including over 40,000 American soldiers, 511,493 South Korean soldiers and civilians, about 400,000 North Koreans, and over 148,000 Chinese soldiers. Therefore, civil wars affect societies severely. In â€Å"Civil Peace†, the war causes terrible casualties of civilians and soldiers, results in fearful society instability, and destroys tremendous infrastructures and houses. In human history, especially in the ninetieth century and the twentieth century, there were many civil wars in different countries because of political, economic, religious, ethnic, and cultural conflicts, for example, the American Civil War between the United States and several southern slaves states from 1861 to 1865;[1] the Korean Civil War between the Republic of Korea and Democratic people Republic of Korea from 1950 to 1953;[2] the Chinese Civil War between the Republic of China and the Communist Party of China from 1927 to 1950, and the Nigeria Civil War between the Hausas Party and the Igbo Party from 1967 to 1970. 3] Civil wars cause serious poverty and starvation for the people, kill tens of thousands of soldiers and civilians, and bring tragedies to many families. For instance, in the Korean Civil war, more than one million soldiers and civilians were killed, including over 40,000 American soldiers, 511,493 South Korean soldiers and civilians, about 400,000 North Koreans, and over 148,000 Chinese soldiers. [4] Therefore, civil wars affect societies severely. In â€Å"Civil Peace†, the war causes terrible casualties of civilians and soldiers, results in fearful society instability, and destroys tremendous infrastructures and houses. First, most Nigerian civilians live in hunger and malnutrition, but more miserably, tens of thousands soldiers and civilians are killed during the devastating civil war. It is estimated that about 180,000 soldiers and civilians were battle deaths and non-battle deaths. [5] Contrary to Jonathan’s luckiness, such as â€Å"He had come out of war with five inestimable blessing-his head, his wife Maria’s head and the heads of three out of their four children†(Achebe 20), many parents lost all of their children and many other children lost their parents. They all live in extreme grief and sorrow of losing their family members. Furthermore, those children whose parents are dead can hardly survive in the extreme postwar poverty. A lot of people suffer life poverty and spiritual grief. Most important, civil war brings tragedies to many families. These tragedies will affect survivors forever. Secondly, civil war not only results in lots of corporations being closed down and many employees being unemployed, but also brings social instability. For example, most of Jonathan’s fellow ex-miners cannot find jobs. They cook meals that they scrounge together in Bournvita tins. Moreover, because a large number civilian population lacks food and money and they are always in starvation; some civilians are forced to make a living through robbery. These robbers bring people serious fear and pain. In â€Å"Civil Peace†, after Jonathan brings his ex-gratia award back home, a gang of robbers comes and threatens that they will break into the house at night if he doesn’t give them one hundred pounds. â€Å"Jonathan and his family were now completely paralyzed by terror. Maria and the children sobbed inaudibly like lost souls. Jonathan groaned continuously† (Achebe 23). At last, the thieves rob Jonathan twenty pounds. Therefore, the Civil War causes serious social instability and brings civilians more sorrows. Thirdly, in addition to life hardships and spiritual grieves, tremendous infrastructures and houses are destroyed in the war. Many people become destitute and homeless. For example, when Jonathan comes back Enugu, he is astonished to find that â€Å"Only two houses away a huge concrete edifice some wealthy contractor had put up just before the war was a mountain of rubble† (Achebe 22). Some ex-miners are sleeping out of the offices because their houses are ruined in civil war. It is well known that roads, bridges, railways, and rban water and electricity facilities are always heavily destroyed during wars. Civilians suffer starvations during the days and endure cold during the nights because their houses are damaged. Indeed, it is inconceivable how tough conditions people live in during the war. Jonathan is an extra-ordinarily lucky man, but most civilians’ lives are tragic. Without food, houses, money, families and jobs, many people almost collapse into near-madness. Therefore, civil war results in numerous houses and infrastructures ruined. In addition, civil war will severely block postwar national economic development. The governments need to invest lots of money to rebuild ruined national infrastructures. â€Å"Nothing puzzles God† says Jonathan (Achebe 25), but civil wars puzzle everyone. Most Nigeria civilians undergo poverty, homelessness, cold and sadness. Civil wars not only bring extreme poverty and starvation, but also cause severe casualties of soldiers and civilians. Moreover, numerous houses and facilities are terribly ruined. In addition, a lot of factories and corporations are forced to close down. Above all, the civil war contributes to severe social instability, brings families tragedies, and causes people deep sorrows.

Study of Humanitarian Aid Agencies Service Delivery

Study of Humanitarian Aid Agencies Service Delivery CHRISTINA KHOURY Stuck in no mans land:people of nowhere are people of now here A study of humanitarian aid agencies service delivery to residents in Kara Tepe refugee camp in Lesvos. DR Disaster Relief EASO European Asylum Support Office EU European Union FMO Forced Migration Online HA Humanitarian Assistance HSA Humanitarian Support Agency IDPs Internally displaced persons IOM International Organisation for Migration IOs International Organisations IRC International Rescue Committee MSF Mà ©decins Sans Frontiers NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations RCRC International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement ROs Regional Organisations UN United Nations UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees   Ã‚   Since the twentieth century, the migration of refugees has been a significant and constant feature of the world order. There has been several factors causing its occurrence, including international wars, civil wars, the rise of fascism, decolonization, national liberation struggles and the creation of nation states (Bloch, 2002, p.1). During 1914-1918 World War I, millions of people were left homeless, fleeing their homelands to seek refuge, and the international community and governments responded by providing travel documents to those people who were the first refugees of the twentieth century (1951 UN Convention). However the flow of refugees did not stop there, but the numbers drastically increased after World War II (1939-1945), when millions were forced to resettle, be displaced or were deported (Guterres, 2011). While the refugee crisis is a phenomenon that has been around for many years, the ongoing conflicts in Syria, Iraq, Somalia, Afghanistan and other troubled countries have resulted in an unprecedented number of 65.3 million people around the world forcibly displaced from their homes. Among them are 21.3 million registered as refugees under UNHCR and UNWRA mandates, over half of whom are children (under 18 years old) (UNHCR, 2016a). Syrians make up, without a doubt, the largest refugee population in the world. The Syria conflict alone, known to be the biggest humanitarian and refugee crisis of our time (UN High Commissioner for Refugees in UNHCR, 2016b), has spawned 4.8 million refugees in neighbouring countries (predominantly Turkey, Lebanon and Jordan), hundreds of thousands in Europe and 6,6 million displaced inside Syria (Mercy Corps, 2016; UNHCR, March 2016). Figure 1: The increase of registered Syrian Refugees from almost zero in 2012 to 4.8 million in 2016 (source: UNHCR, 2016 Which UNHCR article? You need to specify) According to Amnesty Internationals assessment of October 2016, more than half of the worlds 21 million refugees are hosted in just ten low and middle-income countries in the Middle East, Africa and Asia.[1] Europe, however, hosts a share of 6% of the worlds refugee population (Check percentage of refugees in Europe in 2016, add source). In 2015, over a million refugees and migrants made it to Europe by sea, with a majority arriving via the Aegean Sea from Turkey into Greece (UNHCR, 2015). Responding to the massive influx of refugees, several international humanitarian aid agencies established themselves on the Greek Islands to meet the pressing needs of the novel refugee and migrant population. However, it has been widely debated whether these aid agencies are effective in their service delivery and whether they fulfill the tasks they have set out to do. Despite the allocation of millions of dollars of funds to guarantee a decent living standard for the refugees and migrants in the Greek camps, reports reveal dire conditions, with a lack of the most basic livelihoods, such as edible food, basic sanitation services and education (Strickland, 2016; ?). Deeply moved by the horrifying images of human suffering in these camps, I chose to travel to Greece to volunteer in Kara Tepe Camp in Lesvos in the summer of 2016 to i nvestigate the topic further. It is of great importance to examine the efficiency of these humanitarian aid agencies service delivery on the ground in order to build future humanitarian aid programs which adequately meet the needs of the vulnerable refugees and migrants in Lesvos. 1.1 Question and Motivation of Study This dissertation sets out to answer the following research questions: Primary question: To what extent are humanitarian service providing agencies operating in Kara Tepe camp managing to live up to their stated aims and guidelines? Secondary question: What are the obstacles to effective service delivery? This dissertation is a reflective research based on my time spent volunteering with a humanitarian aid organisation, Humanitarian Support Agency (HSA)[2], in a refugee camp in Lesvos, Greece over the course of summer from June to September 2016. However, the area of research of humanitarian assistance to refugees, sparked my interest already in 2011, when the flow of thousands of Syrian refugees began to Jordan, my home country, following Syrias descent into civil war. Jordan, a small yet strong Kingdom, surrounded by countries undergoing conflict, is a host of over 656,000 Syrian refugees (Amnesty International, 2016). Seeing the difficult suffering faced by the Syrian refugee population in my own region (Middle East) as well as in Europe strongly motivated me to gain a hands on experience of humanitarian aid work with refugees. Following, for my applied field experience[3], I chose to travel to Greece and join HSA as a volunteer in Kara Tepe camp in Lesvos; a refugee camp in the la rgest transit point in the East Mediterranean route, which is the first assistance site for refugees and migrants departing from Turkey to Europe (HSA, 2016). During my time volunteering in Kara Tepe, I had the opportunity to work closely with humanitarian aid agencies operating in the camp, gaining insights into their day-to-day provision of services to the residents. It also allowed me to speak to and get to know several of the camp residents refugees and migrants predominantly from Syria, Afghanistan and Iraq who often expressed their concerns and hardships of life in Kara Tepe. In this dissertation, I aim to draw on this experience to investigate the humanitarian aid agencies services to refugees and migrants in Kara Tepe camp. More specifically, by comparing these aid agencies stated aims and guidelines to the real situation of refugees and migrants on the ground, I wish to examine where the agencies are failing at fulfilling their promises in providing adequate assistance to the camp residents. Furthermore, I aim to identify some of the apparent obstacles hindering these agencies effective service delivery. I do not intend to generalise my results regarding humanitarian aid agencies service delivery in refugee camps as it would require a more comprehensive material than what my study is based upon. My ambition is rather to attempt to highlight the humanitarian aid situation in Kara Tepe and voice out the concerns and needs of the residents, drawing on their living situation in the refugee camp. This study will be structured into five chapters. In chapter 2, I will give an overview of the living conditions of refugees and migrants in Greek camps. Here, I will also provide a set of definitions of the key terms adopted in this dissertation. In chapter 3, I will give a review of the existing literature on the humanitarian aid system. In this section, I will outline the theoretical foundations used in this study, including the UNHCR, IRC, Save the Children and HSAs stated aims and guidelines in relation to the factors of water, sanitation, education, food and health care. In chapter 4, I will draw on my first-hand experience in Kara Tepe in order to spot the gaps between the stated aims and guidelines of the aid agencies and the real situation on the ground, based on the stories and interviews with the residents. Furthermore, the analysis will identify some of the apparent obstacles hindering these agencies effective service delivery. Finally, I will conclude by giving a summary of the main findings and their implications, and the possibility of suggesting further research on the topic. 1.2 Methodology Material The choice of method for this dissertation is a mixed study between an autoethnography approach which is a form of qualitative research[4], based on primary qualitative data collection, and a case study using Kara Tepe Camp as the case, in addition to secondary research on academic articles in relation to the humanitarian aid system, UN reports and newspaper articles on the topic. Moreover, I will look at the guidelines, aims and goals of three main agencies operating in camp, namely UNHCR, IRC and Save the Children. The material I have used for my analysis is predominantly based on material gathered through the interviews I have conducted with different refugees from the camp. For their safety and integrity, I have decided to keep their names anonymous and have given them pseudonyms/alias. These interviews that I have conducted are valuable and have provided me with the useful information and insights that are necessary to establish an adequate answer to the question. Moreover, the analysis is also based on my own lived experience through working in Kara Tepe camp. 1.3 Limitations of study When researching the above questions a few limitations had to be considered. First, due to time and space restrains, I had to limit my data collection to the period of my stay in Greece between June and September 2016. The humanitarian assistance keeps developing in camp so there may be new improved services that did not exist back then, which would have been valuable to include in my research. Second, it has to be taken into consideration that the refugees interviewed are in a vulnerable position; hence they may not be able to fully reveal all truths for a public audience, and this is why for some questions, unfortunately, the answers were either very broad or unclearly answered, due to the sensitivity of the matter. Third, there are several possible factors to take into consideration when researching humanitarian assistance provided to refugees living in camps. However, due to space and time restraints, I have chosen to focus on three key humanitarian aid agencies and their service s in Kara Tepe camp, namely UNHCR, IRC and Save the Children. To be called a refugee is the opposite of an insult; it is a badge of strength, courage, and victoryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Tennessee Office for Refugees) 2.1 Definitions of keywords In our current era, more than 65 million people worldwide are displaced by force as refugees, asylum seekers, or internally displaced persons. According to the 1951 Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, to be recognized legitimately as a refugee, a person must be fleeing persecution on the basis of religion, race, political opinion, nationalityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦etc. However, the present factors around displacement are complex and multi-layered which in turn makes the protection based on a strict definition of persecution increasingly problematic and very challenging to implement (Zetter, 2015). Between asylum seekers, refugees and economic migrants there is an overlap and this can cause confusion; therefore, it is very important to distinguish the difference between the terms, and which term applies on the people in the camps in Greece specifically in Kara Tepe Camp. Asylum seeker is: a person who has applied for asylum under the 1951 Refugee Convention on the Status of Refugees on the ground that if he is returned to his country of origin he has a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, political belief or membership of a particular social group. He remains an asylum seeker for so long as his application or an appeal against refusal of his application is pending (Mitchell, 2006). Principally, asylum seekers flee in fear of persecution because of the reasons stated in the definition, so they seek refuge in another country looking for safety, and until their asylum process is ongoing they are called asylum seekers, but once it is processed and the approval is given then they are given a refugee status. In the literature on refugees, there have been many definitions of the term, but I found the following by the UNHCR to be the most inclusive. A refugee is someone who: owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable to or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that countryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Article 1, UN Convention, 1951). They also added that the term refugee can be defined as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ people fleeing conflict or persecution. They are defined and protected in international law, and must not be expelled or returned to situations where their life and freedom are at risk (UNHCR, 2016). But according to migration watch UK, they define a refugee as an asylum seeker whose application has been successful, i.e. that person fleeing war and conflict as defined by the 1951 Refugee Convention. The difference between asylum seeker and a refugee is very difficult to state as they are very similar. Basically, an asylum seeker is someone who is seeking international protection and is waiting for his refugee status, but a refugee is someone who is recognised under the 1951 Convention relating to the status of refugees to be eligible to be a refugee (Phillips, 2011, p.2). Last but not least, migrant, as defined by the UN Convention on the Rights of Migrants is a : person who is to be engaged, is engaged or has been engaged in a remunerated activity in a State of which he or she is not a national. Article 1.1 (a) states that migrants decision to move to these States is taken freely, because of personal convenience and without any external factor that might affect the decision (UNESCO, 2016).Thus, there has been a gap along the lines with the usage of the terminology, especially between the term refugee and asylum seeker. People who have crossed the Mediterranean by paying organised criminals (smugglers) to get them across the borders are known as irregular migrants, because they have not entered the EU legally (European Commission, 2016). Humanitarian aid system (add definition) Humanitarian aid system or humanitarian assistance is intended to save lives, alleviate suffering and maintain human dignity during and after manmade crises and disasters caused by natural hazards as well as to prevent and strengthen preparedness for when such situations occur (Global Humanitarian Assistance, 2016). Humanitarian assistance should be administered by the four key humanitarian principles which are: humanity, impartiality, neutrality and independence; these key principles are the fundamental principles of many NGOs including the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (RCRC) (Global Humanitarian Assistance, 2016). Therefore, in the immediate area of conflict, the main goal is preventing human causalities but at the same time assisting displaced people and making sure they have access to the basic needs of survival which are water, sanitation, food, shelter, and health care (Branczik, 2004). 2.2 International and legal framework/ Humanitarian assistance and relief efforts add more info Humanitarian assistance is and has always been an extremely political activity. It always influenced the political economy of the recipient countries, and is influenced by the political considerations of donor governments (Curtis, 2001, p.3). The effect of conflict on civilians can be directly or indirectly through the so called complex emergencies. The primary aim in any immediate area of conflict is preventing causalities and making sure that everyone has access to the basic rights for surviving, which are water sanitation, food, shelter, and health care. In addition, the priority is usually to assist displaced people and try to prevent the spread of conflict, support relief work and create a space for rehabilitation (Branczik, 2004). Complex humanitarian emergencies are defined by five collective characteristics: first, the deterioration or complete collapse of central government authority; second, ethnic or religious conflict leading to human abuse; third, episodic food insecurity that leads to mass starvation; fourth, macroeconomic collapse that involves unemployment and decrease in GDP per capita; last and the most important focal characteristic is having mass population movements of displaced people and refugees that have escaped a conflict or in search for a better life (Natsios, 1995, p.405). Natsios stated that there are three sets of institutional actors that respond to the above emergencies in a so called complex response system that evolved over the years. These institutional actors are NGOs, UN organisations and the International Red Cross movement (Natsios, 1995, p.406). These sets of actors were reckoned in the 1990s; however in the 20th century, the academics understanding and the literature on the main actors have widened, and have included more detailed actors. For example, according to Branczik (2004), there are four main actors that represent the humanitarian aid sector: International (IOs) and Regional Organisations (ROs); the most important actor in the provision of humanitarian aid is the UN. Unilateral assistance, as well as multilateral, i.e. the countries provide direct aid unilaterally through their own foreign-aid or part of their foreign policy. Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), which play a key role in the provision of humanitarian aid, either directly or as being a UN partner. The Military and its main role is to make sure to create a safe environment where other agencies can operate from, they can also directly provide aid when necessary in cases where the IOs and NGOs are unable to perform or deal with security issues, and it can act as a managing body for the humanitarian relief process. It is important to stress that in order to have a successful humanitarian relief effort, effective leadership and coordination should be present to avoid conflicting activities and duplications of projects and so forth. The UN is the agency that acts as the coordinator in most cases (Branczik, 2004). In addition to the UN, there are other non-governmental organisations (NGOs) that also respond to complex humanitarian emergencies and work together with the UN. The humanitarian assistance and disaster relief efforts (HA/DR) had faced a major challenge in terms of that the diverse information and knowledge are distributed and owned by different organisations, and are not efficiently organised and utilized during HA and DR operations (Zhang et. Al, 2002). Obstacle to the humanitarian aid agencies Moreover, there have been other factors that are defined as great challenges that have affected the performance of the humanitarian aid agencies, and two of those are efficiency and effectiveness. For example and according to Branczik (2004), if the assistance is needed in a conflict zone that is located in a poor area of infrastructure then it would be impossible and dangerous for the humanitarian agencies to deliver aid, this leads to some beneficiaries being neglected due to that (Branczik, 2004). Another important point is the increasing number of agencies operating on the ground, this causes the struggle to obtain accurate intelligence, and when it is difficult to obtain accurate intelligence, the unpredictability of humanitarian crises causes effective management and coordination within the agencies to become difficult, therefore, and in order to solve this difficulty, agencies should improve gathering and sharing the information by improving the management and coordination wit hin them (Branczik, 2004). Furthermore, political dilemmas play an important part in influencing the performance of humanitarian agencies. As Branczik (2004) and Stockton (2006) call it, humanitarian alibi, which refers to the fact that most humanitarian crises are caused by bad governance and the bad performance of the humanitarian agencies is also affected by deliberate acts by governments to frustrate humanitarian access to, and deny the existence of the people that are in need of protection. It is therefore defined as: the misuse of the humanitarian idea and humanitarian workers by governments eager to do as little as possible in economically unpromising regions (Branczik, 2004; Stockton, 2006). 2.3 Aims and guidelines of humanitarian aid agencies in Kara Tepe camp UNHCR Legal Framework The Universal Declaration of Human Rights that was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly was published in 1948 and is still used and relevant today as it was back then. The main reason for issuing it was to declare the rights and freedoms to which every human being is equally and inalienably entitled (UDHR, 1948, p. iii). UDHR is a promise to everyone and not country-specific or for a certain era or social group, it is a promise to all the economic, social, political, cultural and civic rights whatever colour, race, ethnicity they are, gender, whether they are disabled or not, citizens or migrants, and no matter what creed, age or sexual orientation (UDHR, 1948, p. v + vi). Abuse of Human Rights did not diminish when the UDHR was adopted, but at least more people have gained more freedom, and violations were not permitted. According to part 1 of article 14 of UDHR: 1. Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution, onwards the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees was adopted and entered into force on 22 April 1954, and is now called the centrepiece of international refugee protection, and its amendment the 1967 Protocol which removed all geographic limitations to include everyone and make it universal (UN Convention, 1951, p. 2). Refugees are considered part of the most vulnerable people in the world; and for that reason, the UN has issued the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol to help protect them (Guterres, 2011). The UNHCR works under the United Nations General Assembly and its goal is to seek international protection and permanent solutions for refugees. It was established in 1950 with a core mandate to protect the refugees. However, nowadays it is responsible for a slightly larger group that does not only include refugees but also asylum seekers, internally displaced persons (IDPs), stateless persons or migrants (UNHCR, 2014). Although the protection of refugees is the primarily the responsibility of States, however the main partner that works closely with the governments is the UNHCR and has been doing so throughout the past 50+ years (Jastram Achiron, 2001, p.5). UNHCR aims Specify here what these conventions say about humanitarian assistance to refugees. And specify what they should do in Greece/kara tepe (Provide legal advice, information about asylum processes, housing tents, medical care). IRC aims and guidelines in lesvos The IRC is the only international aid organization working on all fronts of the crisis. In Europe: The IRC was one of the first aid organizations to assist the thousands of refugees arriving each day on the Greek island, Lesbos. IRC aid workers continue to work around the clock in Greece and in Serbia to provide essential services, including clean water and sanitation, to families living in terrible conditions. And we are helping new arrivals navigate the confusing transit process and understand their legal rights. https://www.rescue.org/topic/refugee-crisis-europe-middle-east http://www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/policy_research/the_truth_about_asylum?gclid=CjwKEAiA4dPCBRCM4dqhlv2R1R8SJABom9pH4MUi49WtBBRwl558uk2TDFLSaBVM4B54KIi7rfFL0xoCr1bw_wcB Education is the most powerful tool for children, their families and communities in order to survive and recover from a crisis or a conflict; it enables people to drive their own health, safety and prosperity (IRC, 2016). According to the IRC goals that they have published, they state that poor access to education can affect peoples chance to improve their lives, which is why they provide children, youth and adults with educational opportunities which therefore keeps them safe and learn the skills they need to survive and succeed (IRC, 2016). Moreover, the IRCs main goals in regards to education are the following: Ensure that children aged 0 to 5 develop cognitive and social-emotional skills Ensure that school-aged children develop literacy, numeracy and social-emotional skills Ensure that youth and adults have high levels of livelihood, literacy, numeracy and social-emotional skills Ensure that children, youth and adults have regular access to safe and functional education services (IRC, 2016). Save the children aims and guidelines Save the childrens main priority in Greece and especially in Lesvos is to protect the children that are in refugee camps, and to ensure that most importantly they are physically safe and have enough food and good shelter. Apart from distributing the basics, they claim to have started providing items such as sanitary pads, soap, shampoo, toilet paper and simple food items such as crackers and tea (save the children, 2015). However, since their priority is protecting children, they have also met with national charities in Greece to identify child protection needs, and have worked on transporting the new arrivals to the island to different registration points, to make sure that families and unaccompanied children to do not have to walk 70km to register (save the children, 2015). Food Asylum Process Language Give me the money to pay a smuggler and Ill go back to Syria right now. There the death is quick. Here we are dying slowly. In this chapter, the theoretical foundations of humanitarian aid discussed above will be applied to the case of aid agencies operating in Kara Tepe camp. First I I will give a brief overview of the situation in Kara Tepe according to my own lived experience and reflection there during summer. Second, I will compare and contrast the agencies stated aims and guidelines to the real situation on the ground in Kara Tepe in order to clarify to what extent they manage to live up to their words. I will then underline some of the key obstacles currently hindering the organisations effective service delivery to the residents. Before arriving to Lesvos, I had no expectations of how the situation would be there. All I had in mind was the image often portrayed to us by the media about the refugee camps, which is one an image of violence and chaos, and I thought our task as volunteers would solely be to only distribute food and clothes as it was mentioned on the organisations website. However, when I arrived to the island, nothing was as I imagined it to be. In fact, Kara Tepe was a well-organised camp, and our job as HSA volunteers with HSA was to distribute food and clothes to families in camp, but it was done through a well thought out system. We had the meals delivered to the resident families door- to-door to their housing units in teams. The residents themselves were also part of the distribution teams, depending on what area they lived in as they were more familiar with the people of the camp than the volunteers residents. Moreover, we also distributed clothes by giving the residents tickets for monthly appointments. This system has indeed created a harmony in the camp, and a sense of belonging to a community. A very important factor that played a huge role for me while in Kara Tepe was the language. Arabic is my mother tongue, so it was easy for me to communicate with most of the refugees which had come to Lesvos from Syria and Iraq. Consequently, I therefore created a special bond with them and they turned to me to translate when misunderstandings or problems occurred in the camp. Being the only staff speaking their language, I felt that it became my duty to voice their feelings and opinions in everyday situations, being the only staff speaking their language, and I believe this was why I allocated a leading role in the team from the outset. My boss saw how the refugees turned to me for help as I could voice their concerns, and assigned me as a team leader shortly after I arrived. As I gained an understanding of the familys needs, my duties did not just involve the clothing distribution part, but also comprised on the task of improving the existing system to avoid stress and queues. This project was successful and it led the UNHCR to ask to publish our standard of procedures to the benefit of other organisations operating in the camp, and we got praised by the camp management for increasing the safety and dignity of the refugees residing in there which are referred to as residents of Kara Tepe. It is important to stress that the refugees living in camps are human beings just like everyone else. Fleeing wars and conflicts, being homeless, does not make them any different from anyone. They had normal lives in their home countries when the war forced them to leave everything and flee, and they are often well educated and skilled. Unfortunately, the way the refugees are forced to live in camps portray them in a very bad way, that everyone including myself had our own assumptions towards them due to the situation. It has been my privilege to have known and live among the refugees that I call my friends and family now for three months in Kara Tepe, and therefore I had to give this background of my time spent in camp as a tribute to

Anthropogenic Polycyclic Aromatic

Anthropogenic Polycyclic Aromatic Source Apportionment of Anthropogenic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) by Molecular and Isotopic Characterization A dissertation submitted as part of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science Abstract Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are important, ubiquitous environmental pollutants known for their carcinogenic and mutagenic properties. They are released into the atmosphere, soil (which bears about 90% of the environmental PAH burden in the UK) and water by natural and anthropogenic processes. Today, anthropogenic combustion of fossil fuel is, by far, the most important source of PAH input into the environment. The importance of PAHs as environmental pollutants with a multiplicity of sources has resulted in considerable interest in source apportionment techniques. This study therefore investigated the PAH profiles in road dust samples around a high temperature carbonization plant (Barnsley, South Yorkshire) and used the combination of molecular methods and gas chromatography-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (d13C GC-IRMS) to identify their origin. Quantification of the sixteen U.S EPA priority PAHs extracted from the dust samples ranged from 2.65 to 90.82g/g. The PAH profiles were dominated by phenanthrene for 2-3 ring PAHs and by fluoranthene, pyrene, chrysene and benzo(b+k)flouranthene for PAHs with ring size ≠¥ 4. The fluoranthene to pyrene (Fl/(FL+P)) )) concentration ratio ranged from 0.51 to 0.55, while the indenol(1,2,3-cd)pyrene to benzo(ghi)perylene (IcdP/(IcdP+ BghiPer)) ratio ranged from 0.37 to 0.55; suggesting contributions from diesel combustion, most likely from heavy duty trucks. The ability of compound-specific stable isotope measurement, using d13C GC-IRMS, to source apportion environmental PAHs where significant input from coal is expected has been demonstrated. The PAH d13C isotope ratio values ranged from -25.5 to -29.7%o. Overall, the d13C isotope ratio, in conjunction with PAH molecular distribution/ratio, strongly suggest that PAHs in the study area have inputs from both high temperature coal carbonisation and transport fuels (mainly diesel combustion). Chapter One 1.0 Introduction Industrialization, centered on energy use, has been the driving force for many of the greatest advances in the 20th century and is central to our way of life in the modern world today. Energy improvements and the discovery of fossil fuel (coal and petroleum) have hastened industrialization and breakthroughs in areas such as travel, communication, agriculture and healthcare, in many parts of the world. Despite these achievements, industrialization has brought along with it global problems of environmental pollution and challenges. These include exploitation of natural resources, oil spillages, global warming due to rising emissions of carbon dioxide and other green house gases, disposal of wastes (industrial and domestic) and inorganic and organic emissions which ultimately affect air, water and land quality. The release of organics/organic effluents such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), mainly from the use of fossil fuels; into the environment have particularly gained attention in recent times due to their toxicity and persistence. 1.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants that are of great public concern due to their toxicity, carcinogenicity and/or mutagenicity (Fabbri et al., 2003; Sharma et al., 2007). They are continuously introduced into the environment by both natural processes, such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires; and anthropogenic sources which include various industrial processes such as coke production in the iron and steel industry, catalytic cracking in the petroleum industry, coal gasification, heating and power generation, open burning of vegetation and internal combustion engines used for various means of transportation (Suess, 1976; Morasch et al., 2007). Immense PAHs contaminations of the environment typically originate from anthropogenic sources. A natural balance existing between the production and natural degradation of PAH historically kept the background concentration of PAH in the environment low and fixed (Smith and Harrison, 1996). The ever-increasing industrial development and use of fossil fuels in many parts of the world released PAHs into the environment resulting in their universal occurrence in air, water, soil and sediments. This increase in the production rate of anthropogenic PAHs has disrupted the natural balance of PAHs in the environment, while their rate of decomposition remains more or less constant (Suess, 1976; Fetzer, 1988). PAHs are found in great abundance in fossil fuel materials such as shale oil, coal liquids, petroleum, asphalt and many other hydrocarbon based materials (Fetzer, 1988). Incomplete combustion of these fossil fuel materials produces fly ash, chimney soot and engine-derived air particulates which have higher levels of PAHs than the original materials (Chadwick et al., 1987; Fetzer, 1988). Generally, PAHs give rise to significant impact to the areas close to the nearest point sources (Ohkuchi et al., 1999). There are very high concentrations of atmospheric PAH in the urban environment which is accounted for by the various industrial processes earlier identified, increasing vehicular traffic and the scarce dispersion of the atmospheric pollutants. These PAHs are emitted to the atmosphere either in the gaseous phase or on very small particles, 70-90% of which are in the respirable range (et al., 1987). The risk associated with the human exposure to atmospheric PAH is therefore highest in the cities because of these factors and the density of population (Sharma et al., 2007). In view of the carcinogenic potential of many PAH compounds, their contribution to the mutagenic activity of ambient aerosols and range of sources of emission, their concentration in the environment is considered alarming and efforts should be made to reduce or even eliminate them wherever possible. To achieve this, a better understanding of their fate and associative transformation pathways in the environment is necessary and this has resulted in considerable interest in PAHs source apportionment. 1.2 Source Apportionment Most organic pollutants can be released into the environment from various sources. Hydrocarbon pollutants are particularly widespread in the environment due to the multiplicity of their sources such as synthesis by living organisms (biogenic origin), degradation of organic matter (diagenic origin), incomplete combustion of organic matter and natural and anthropogenic fossil fuel combustibles (petrogenic origin) (Mazeas et al., 2002). Due to the multiplicity of the sources of organic pollutants, source apportionment techniques are invaluable in the determination of the contributions of various pollution sources of a pollutant in the environment. Source apportionment generally refers to the quantitative assignment of a combination of distinct sources of a particular group of compounds put into a system (OMalley et al., 1994). Differences in emission profile, among emission sources, have been sufficiently used to develop fingerprints that can be identified and quantified at a particular site (Dallarosa et al., 2005). As mentioned earlier, most of the environmental PAHs have anthropogenic origins. Contributions from coal combustion and use of petroleum in internal combustion engines for transportation have increased over the years and have generated a lot of concern. It is therefore important to be able to distinguish different sources that contribute to PAH pollution of a particular environment using reliable source apportionment techniques. This project work is therefore aimed at contributing to the knowledge of reliable, unambiguous novel PAH source apportionment techniques by: (i) Identifying and quantifying contemporary PAHs fluxes in the environment around a coking works using molecular methods (ii) Demonstrating the ability of compound specific stable isotope measurement to source apportion environmental PAHs where significant input from coal is expected Chapter Two 2.0 Literature Review 2.1 General overview of the properties of PAHs Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) compounds are a class of complex organic chemicals made up of carbon and hydrogen with a fused ring structure containing at least 2 benzene rings (Ravindra et al., 2008). They may also contain additional fused rings that are not six-sided (Figure 1). Pyrosynthesis and pyrolysis are two main mechanisms that can explain the formation of PAH from saturated hydrocarbons under oxygen-deficient conditions. Low molecular weight hydrocarbons like ethane form PAHs by pyrosynthesis (Figure 2). At a temperature greater than 5000C, carbon-hydrogen and carbon-carbon bond are broken to form free radicals which combine to form acetylene. Acetylene condenses further to form aromatic ring structures which are resistant to degradation (Figure 2). The ease with which hydrocarbons may form PAH structure varies in the order aromatics > cycloolefins > olefins > Paraffins (Ravindra et al., 2008). The higher molecular weight alkanes in fuel form PAH by pyrolysis: the cracking of organic compounds. The discovery of the fluorescence of a number of known carcinogenic tars and mineral oils in 1930 led to the investigation of the carcinogenic properties of PAHs. This spanned from the discovery that benz(a)anthracene and other compounds in its group possessed a similar fluorescence (Chadwick et al., 1987). Initial investigation for PAH carcinogenicity using dibenz(a,h)anthracene later resulted in the isolation of a powerful carcinogenic substance from coal tar: benzo(a)pyrene (Chadwick et al., 1987). Since the discovery of benzo(a)pyrene, various works have been done to identify other carcinogenic PAHs. Sixteen (16) parental PAHs have been designated by the US environmental protection agency (US EPA) as priority pollutants and most of the studies have focused on these (Figure 1 and Table 1). Seven (7) of these (Table 2) have been identified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as animal carcinogens and have been studied by the EPA as potential human carcinogens (EPA report, 1998). PAH can undergo metabolic transformation into mutagenic, carcinogenic and teratogenic agents in aquatic and terrestrial organisms. These metabolites, such as dihydrodiol epoxides, bind to, and disrupt, DNA and RNA, which is the basis for tumor formation (Wild and Jones, 1995). Although PAHs are renowned for their carcinogenic and mutagenic properties, not all of them are environmentally or biologically significant. Studies have been carried out on monitoring the levels of some of the important PAH in various parts of the world and the results of a number of these are summarized in Table 2. The carcinogenicity and/or mutagenicity of PAH, which require metabolic conversion and activation, is structurally dependent: while certain isomers can be very active, other similar ones are not (Fetzer, 1988). An example, as shown by Fetzer (1988), is found in the five PAHs with molecular weight of 288 and containing 4 rings. Chrysene, benz[a]anthracene and benzo[c]phenanthrene are mutagenic but the remaining two, napthacene and triphenylene are not. As molecular weight increases, the carcinogenic level of PAHs also increases and acute toxicity decreases (Ravindra et al., 2008). The p electron fused benzene rings in PAHs account for most of their physical properties and chemical stability (Lee et al., 1981). The 2-ring and 3-ring PAHs compounds, which are more volatile and water soluble, but less lipophilic than their higher molecular weight relatives, generally exist primarily in the gas phase in the atmosphere and will tend to be deposited to the surfaces via dry gaseous and/or wet deposition (Ravindra et al., 2008). On the other hand, the less volatile 5-6 ring PAHs tend to be deposited on surfaces bound to particles in wet and dry deposition; while compounds of intermediate vapor pressure will have a temperature-dependent gas/particle partitioning of PAHs leading to both wet and dry deposition in gaseous and particle-bound form (Mannino and Orecchio, 2008). PAHs have a tendency to sorb on hydrophobic surfaces and this tendency increases with the number of aromatic rings (Morasch et al., 2007). Thus, PAHs are primarily found/present in the environment in soils and sediments, rather than water and air. Their high hydrophobic tendency and high lipophilic properties make them easily bio-accumulated to such an extent that can threaten the safety of food chains for both man and animals (Sun et al., 2003). Compounds Chemical formula Molecular weight Melting point, oC Boiling point,oC Particle/gas phase distribution Napthalene C10H8 128.19 80.5 218 Acenaphthylene C12H8 152.21 Gas phase Acenaphthene C12H10 154.21 96.2 279 Gas phase Fluorene C13H10 166.22 116 -117 295 Gas phase Phenanthrene C14H10 178.24 100 101 340 Particle phase Anthracene C14H10 178.24 216.5 217.2 339.9 Particle phase Fluoranthene C16H10 202.26 110.6 111.0 393 Particle phase Pyrene C16H10 202.66 152.2 152.9 360 Particle phase Benz(a)anthracene* C18H12 228.30 159.5 160.5 435 Particle phase Chrysene* C18H12 228.30 250 254 448 Particle phase Benzo(b)fluoranthene* C20H12 252.32 Particle phase Benzo(K)fluoranthene* C20H12 252.32 215.5 216 Particle phase Benzo(a)pyrene* C20H12 252.32 176.5 -177.5 311 Particle phase Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene* C20H12 276.34 Particle phase Dibenz(a,h)anthracene* C22H14 278.34 205 Particle phase Benzo(ghi)perylene C20H12 276.34 273 Particle phase *PAHs identified animal carcinogens and as potential human carcinogens Table 1: Physical properties of 16 priority PAHs on US EPA listing (Adapted from EPA REPORT, 1998, Ravindra et al., 2008) S/N Total PAHs Mean (ngm-3) Cities 1 à ¥ 15 PAHs 56 Columbia (USA) 2 à ¥ 15 PAHs 412 Austria 3 B (a) P 4.99-9.56a Delhi 4 à ¥ 12 PAHs 93 Denver (USA) 5 à ¥ 8 PAHs 150-1800a Delhi 6 à ¥ 15 PAHs 166 London 7 à ¥ 15 PAHs 59 Cardiff 8 à ¥ 11 PAHs 90-195 (I)a, 20-70 (R)a Ahmedabad 9 à ¥ 12 PAHs 22.9-190.96a Kolkata 10 à ¥ 12 PAHs 20-95a, 125-190a Mumbai, Nagpur 11 à ¥ 13 PAHs 90.37 57.04 Coimbatore 12 à ¥ 11 PAHs 310 (60-910)a Mexico city 13 à ¥ 15 PAHs 8.94-62.5a Camo Grande city 14 à ¥ 16 PAHs 13-1865a Chicago I= industrial site, R = residential site, a Range Table 2: A summary of mean concentrations (ng/m3) of total PAHs in various cities of the world (Sharma et al., 2007) 2.2 Anthropogenic sources of PAHS The high concentration of PAHs in the environment, as shown in Table 2, suggests the extent of anthropogenic contribution (Sharma et al., 2007). It is, however, difficult to estimate the amount of anthropogenic PAHS on the yearly input of the various sources on a global basis. An approximate quantification has been made, based on the annual consumption of fossil fuel, that while the global annual release of PAHs to the atmosphere is of an order of 105 tonnes, including 103 tonnes of benzo(a)pyrene; the annual input of crude and processed oil containing 1-3% PAHs to the oceans of the world is 1.1106 tonnes (Ivwurie, 2004). The main anthropogenic sources of carcinogenic PAHs are emissions from fossil fuel combustion in industrial and power plants, automobile emissions, biomass burning, agricultural burning and natural gas utilization. Fossil fuel utilization is the major cause of anthropogenic PAH occurrence in the environment. Hence, emphasis is placed on these sources below. 2.2.1 PAHs from Coal Combustion and Conversion Processes Coal, an organic rock formed from the accumulation and burial of partially decomposed vegetation in previous geologic ages through a series of physical, biological and biochemical changes; is a major fossil fuel for heating and power generation. The predominant organic components in coal have resulted from the formation and condensation of polynuclear carboxylic and heterocyclic ring compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur (United Nations, 1973). Due to its chemical composition (heterogeneous macro-molecular matrix, including hydrocarbons and hetero-atomic moieties) various coal conversion and utilizations are significant contributors of PAHs to the environment. Coal combustion emissions 47 PAH compounds resulting from coal combustion residing in fly ash, grate ash or the stack emissions were identified in the work of Junk and Ford (1980, cited in Chadwick et al., 1987). However, these PAH emissions are a function of the efficiency of the coal combustion plant. On the whole, large, efficient coal-burning, electricity-generating plants, with high combustion temperatures, emit relatively low total amounts of PAH and contribute very little to PAH emissions when operated properly (Chadwick et al., 1987). PAH emission factors for coal-fired plants were put at 32ugkg-1 and 41ugkg-1 coal by Ramdahl et al. (1983) and Masclet et al. (1987) respectively. 70% of the total PAH emission flux from power plants is made up of 3-4 ring PAHs and their alkylated counterparts (Wild and Jones, 1995). 5-6 ring PAHs and their heteroatom-containing derivatives are emitted from coke ovens during coal carbonisation (Kirton et al., 1991) Coal carbonization emissions Coal carbonization, the pyrolytic decomposition of coal in the absence of oxygen, can be classified according to the temperature to which the coal is heated, as shown in Table 3. This process yields char or coke, tar and oven or coal gas as the major products. Coke is by far the most important product in terms of yield and revenue. However, leakages from coke ovens are sources of release of high levels of PAHs and other organics to the environment. Emissions from coke ovens range from volatile monoaromatics (alkyl benzenes) to 5-6 ring PAHs together with their substituted heteroatom derivatives such as O-PAHs, NPAHs and S-PAHs (Lao et al., 1975; Kirton et al., 1991). Anderson et al. (1983) determine

Banner in the Sky by James Ramsey Ullman Essay -- essays research pape

The book that I have read chose to review is Banner in the Sky by James Ramsey Ullman. James ramsey Ullman was born in New York City in 1907. His highest-honored book was Banner in the Sky, but four of his books, including this one, were made into major motion pictures.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main characters of this story are Rudi Matt, Franz Lerner, Frau Matt, John Winter, and Emil Saxo. Rudi is the son of the legendary mountain guide of the Alps, Josef Matt. He has mountain climbing in his blood and is destined to become a guide. He is the main character of the story. Franz Lerner is Rudi’s uncle. He was with Josef Matt hours before he died while trying to climb the Citadel, and now he is looking out for Rudi. Frau Matt is Rudi’s mother. She does not want Rudi to become a guide like his father because she fears that he will die the same way. John winter is a famous guide in Switzerland. Rudi saved his life and now Winter wants him to climb the Citadel with him. Emil Saxo is a famous Swiss guide form the village of Broli. Winter asks him to be the guide for the journey up the Citadel.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Rudi Matt has been given a chance to avenge his father’s death when Capt. John Winter asks him to climb the Citadel, the last unconquered peak in the Alps, along with him. Rudi is eager to do it but he cannot get consent from his mother, so he lies and tells Winter that he can go. They start up the Citadel with the famous guide Emil Saxo, who is also ve...

Katharina and Petruchio from The Taming of the Shrew by William Shakesp

Katharina and Petruchio from The Taming of the Shrew by William Shakespeare My two favourite characters from the play, The Taming of the Shrew, which was written by William Shakespeare, are Katharina and Petruchio. I find them extremely interesting, not just because they are the main characters, but because of their contrast, chemistry and similarity between them. They go from hating each other at the beginning of the book and by the end, Katharina is obedient, the taming is complete and they are married living happily together. Petruchio has one of the main parts to play in the book as 'the tamer' while Katahrina is alongside him as 'the shrew', which in turn makes up the title of the story. Katharina is very argumentative, disagreeable and violent with all her suitors and indeed Bianca, for example the stage directions say that, "Katharina with a whip stands over Bianca, who crouches by the wall, her hands tied behind her." (Act 2, Scene 1, Stage Directions) This shows that she is extremely violent and willing to beat a confession out of anyone. Because Katharina is this way, no man wishes to marry her, although many of tried. But Petruchio comes along and he finds a challenge and, of course, a fair amount of money to profit from the venture. He is interested in the money from the dowry in particular because he enquires, "Then tell me - if I got your daughter's love, what dowry shall I have with her to wife?" (Act 2, Scene 1, Lines 119 - 120) This shows he is probably more interested in the dowry than in Katharina. Now we know that Petruchio is greedy as well as rich! A good scene to show as an example of both Petruchio and Katharina in conversation is Act 2, Scene 1. While Petruchio is in... ... none shall eat; Last night she slept not, nor tonight she shall not." (Act 4, Scene 1, Lines 182 - 183) This shows us that Petruchio is starving Katharina of her food and also depriving her of sleep. Hopefully this will turn her into a good person! Petruchio mentions one last thing near to the end of his second soliloquy, which tells us exactly why he is doing this: "This is a way to kill a wife with kindness." (Act 4, Scene 1, Line 193) In conclusion I think the two make an entertaining pair, which make the story thoroughly enjoyable for many people. The 'tamer' and 'the shrew' are amazingly similar in different ways and in the end Petruchio and Katharina bonded. Katharina becomes extremely well behaved and obedient even more so than Bianca, the total opposite to what she used to be. The taming of the shrew is complete and thus, the story ends. Katharina and Petruchio from The Taming of the Shrew by William Shakesp Katharina and Petruchio from The Taming of the Shrew by William Shakespeare My two favourite characters from the play, The Taming of the Shrew, which was written by William Shakespeare, are Katharina and Petruchio. I find them extremely interesting, not just because they are the main characters, but because of their contrast, chemistry and similarity between them. They go from hating each other at the beginning of the book and by the end, Katharina is obedient, the taming is complete and they are married living happily together. Petruchio has one of the main parts to play in the book as 'the tamer' while Katahrina is alongside him as 'the shrew', which in turn makes up the title of the story. Katharina is very argumentative, disagreeable and violent with all her suitors and indeed Bianca, for example the stage directions say that, "Katharina with a whip stands over Bianca, who crouches by the wall, her hands tied behind her." (Act 2, Scene 1, Stage Directions) This shows that she is extremely violent and willing to beat a confession out of anyone. Because Katharina is this way, no man wishes to marry her, although many of tried. But Petruchio comes along and he finds a challenge and, of course, a fair amount of money to profit from the venture. He is interested in the money from the dowry in particular because he enquires, "Then tell me - if I got your daughter's love, what dowry shall I have with her to wife?" (Act 2, Scene 1, Lines 119 - 120) This shows he is probably more interested in the dowry than in Katharina. Now we know that Petruchio is greedy as well as rich! A good scene to show as an example of both Petruchio and Katharina in conversation is Act 2, Scene 1. While Petruchio is in... ... none shall eat; Last night she slept not, nor tonight she shall not." (Act 4, Scene 1, Lines 182 - 183) This shows us that Petruchio is starving Katharina of her food and also depriving her of sleep. Hopefully this will turn her into a good person! Petruchio mentions one last thing near to the end of his second soliloquy, which tells us exactly why he is doing this: "This is a way to kill a wife with kindness." (Act 4, Scene 1, Line 193) In conclusion I think the two make an entertaining pair, which make the story thoroughly enjoyable for many people. The 'tamer' and 'the shrew' are amazingly similar in different ways and in the end Petruchio and Katharina bonded. Katharina becomes extremely well behaved and obedient even more so than Bianca, the total opposite to what she used to be. The taming of the shrew is complete and thus, the story ends.

The Effects of Second Hand Smoke Essay -- Smoking Tobacco Health Lung

The Effects of Second Hand Smoke Did you know that 3,000 American non-smokers will die this year from lung cancer? Those deaths are entirely preventable. Their lung cancer is caused by second hand smoke. Second hand smoke is smoke they have breathed in from other people's cigarettes. It is also known as involuntary or passive smoking. There is nothing passive however about the effects of this smoke. It is lethal and it is dangerous. It may give as many as 300,000 children under the age of one and half bronchitis and pneumonia. It could even be responsible for more than 35,000 deaths from heart disease. Smoking causes lung cancer. This fact is indisputable. What is sometimes disputed is the extent to which the smoke from other people's cigarettes damages those around them. Some in the tobacco industry play down this effect. They say that passive smoking is at worst a minor irritant. They say the recorded illness, deaths and cancers of those who have to live and work with smokers is a coincidence. They even have the audacity to suggest that those illnesses may be caused by diet or other environmental factors. Let us look at the facts. There are two ways in which passive or second hand smoke can affect non- smokers. Mainstream smoke is that smoke that has already been inhaled and then exhaled by the smoker. Sidestream smoke is the smoke that comes off the burning end or tip of the cigarette. Both of these sources are responsible for passive smoke inhaled by non-smokers. Second hand smoke is chemically similar to that inhaled by smokers. After 30 minutes exposure to second-hand smoke the blood flow to the heart is reduced. On top of this a non-smoker who is regularly exposed to second hand smoke has a 20 to 30% increased risk of lung cancer. Tobacco smoke contains 4,000 chemicals in the form of particles and gases. 200 of those chemicals are very poisons. 43 of those chemicals are proven to cause cancer. This lethal combination is what causes tobacco smoke to be classified as a Group A carcinogen. Incredibly 85% of the smoke from a cigarette will not be inhaled by the smoker. Instead it will fill up the room. That means only 15% of the smoke from a cigarette is actually inhaled by the person smoking it. On top of this, many of the toxic poisons and gases in sidestream smoke are present in higher quantities than in mainstream smoke. The poisons an... ... a welcome move. It means that we can start to look forwards to a smoke free environment for ourselves and our children. Unfortunately the statistics tell us that there are still many millions of people who still insist on their 'right' to smoke. The children who are exposed to their smoke do not have such a choice. Protecting children and non-smokers from the effects of second hand smoke must be a priority for everyone. A smoker chooses to smoke but a non-smoker's risk is involuntary. Exposure to second hand smoke is a real and present threat to our health. As a result there are many non-smokers who are needlessly dying from heart disease and lung cancer. Second hand smoking causes asthma, reduces lung function and bronchitis, pneumonia and causes middle ear infections. Many of these illness are inflicted upon small children. Bans on smoking in workplaces exist. So do bans on smoking in restaurants. Unless they are rigidly enforced they won't make a difference. Smoking, unfortunately, cannot be banned in homes. Passive smoking should be shown for exactly what it is, a dangerous killer. Maybe then non-smokers, especially children, will not suffer from second hand smoke.

Gays in the Military

Steven Danielson Gays in the Military A hot topic in the news these days is whether gays should be allowed to serve openly in the military. Many issues have arisen from allowing or not allowing gays to serve openly. Those opposed are concerned that gays would cause a break down in unit cohesion, a rise in assaults or violence, a drop in recruitment or retention, and feel that since America is currently fighting two wars that right now is not a good time to implement a new policy when it is felt that the current one is working just fine. Numerous studies have been conducted on this issue.Through poll, surveys, observing other countries that allow gays to serve openly and even by checking history it is felt that this would not be the case. Given all the evidence that points to allowing gays to serve openly outweigh any negatives that would possibly come about. Gays make up a portion of key personnel that is sorely needed in this time of war especially with a all volunteer force. The fa ct that military personal are being lost due to this law not only is harmful to military it also wrong on that these gays are having their basic human rights violated by the very country they are trying to protect.This has been an issue within the military since the very beginnings of its establishment of this nation since â€Å"The discharge of military personnel for homosexual behavior dates from at least the continental army of the revolutionary period† (Rayside 258). The military had a strict no gays allowed to serve for many years and it wasn’t until former president Clinton raised the issue in his campaign for presidency in 1991 did it come onto the radar of the news and on the minds of the American people.He promised to fight to have it so gays could serve in the armed forces of the United States. When he was elected president he set out to change things. Then President made a effort to change the policy but â€Å"Clinton was persuaded by the military, mobilize d by Chief of Staff Colin Powell, not to fulfill his campaign promise to allow gays and leasbians to serve openly† (Pencak 178). He was unable to change the policy drastically and had to settle for a compromise with the military and congress. This is where we got the still standing don’t ask don’t tell policy.This new law allowed gays to serve but they were required to keep their sexual orientation private and by going public with it would end in discharge from the service. The new policy also covered any homosexual actions stating that â€Å"A service member who engages in, attempts to engage in, or solicits a homosexual act is to be discharged, unless he can prove that such an act was an aberration and is unlikely to recur† (Hillman 264). If they were to state that they were gays or attempt to marry someone of the same sex this would too lead to termination.The phrase â€Å"don’t ask don’t tell† comes from the fact that no one will e ver ask if you are gays; as the military used to screen potential future military members by asking them before they joined. The don’t ask tell part comes from the fact that a gay service member must not tell anyone that they are homosexual. Later â€Å"don’t pursue† would added to it, meaning that the military would not pursue a suspected gay member as long as they didn’t tell. This was established out of fear that people would conduct â€Å"witch hunts† for gay members.Since the 1980s over 32,000 active duty members have been discharged for being gay. This is a large percent of people who were willing to serve but through no fault of their own we told they could not and were sent on their way. That is 32,000 already fully trained personnel that had to be replaced costing the country millions of dollars. There had been cases were people with key jobs being discharged as in a few Arabic translators be discharge when as of now they are in great dema nd. Discharging these personal is non sense. Not only is it violating their rights, â€Å"U.S. law prohibits discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, race, or gender with regard to the rights of citizenship, the military maintains policies that are opposed to this most-basic American ideal† but it is putting this country and other service members at risk cause translators are a key competent of fighting the war on terror (Issit 4). How can a military succeed in winning the hearts and minds of people they cannot even talk with? The number of service members discharged each year in the United States is approximately 1,000-1,200.All of which are needed to be replaced with new people who require training. Losing the experience of those who were serving longer period of times is detrimental to the military because they possess the knowledge and skills required to accomplish the mission and have the ability to pass they knowledge on to new personnel. The amount of money r equired to replace them is enough that any tax paying American would be upset about. There are many reasons for someone to be discharged, from drug use to medical reasons.By changing this law the country would be losing a third less personnel each year. The American public is split on the issue. With about 60% saying that gays should be allowed to serve and 40% feeling they should be able to serve openly. A service wide survey was conducted asking the opinions of those who would be serving side by side with gays. The views of current service member varied much like that of American civilians. But they had reason for their concern when it came to those who opposed it. They were concerns about privacy issues.They were not comfortable with living with a known homosexual. The military does not allow males and females to share a room and there is concern having a same sex and gays living together. This might lead to a change in housing policy and bathroom faculties in having to separate men and women and gay men and lesbian women. This would lead to having to make new restrooms and building of new living quarters for gays. With another concern being the effect on Unit cohesion which can be broken down in two parts; task cohesion and social cohesion.Task cohesion referring to the ability to work together effectively in order to accomplish a mission and social cohesion referring to the emotional bonds and trust among unit members (US Government, DoD 102). The military is worried that gays would become a distraction for straights and this would disrupt the comradely between troops, all of which is very important in a wartime setting â€Å"because soldiers must withstand the tremendous emotional strain of seeing many of their friends brutally killed by the enemy† (Wilson 2). There are also religious and moral issues that have been brought up.The fact is that most religions say the homosexuality is wrong and by making personnel who are religious serve with gays i nfringes on the religious beliefs and the right to religious freedom in the military. Some feel that being gay is just wrong and do no want to be force to work alongside or live with someone of is known to be gay. Some also believe that don’t ask don’t tell law is working just fine and that it should just stay that way feeling that gays can serve but they just have to keep their sexuality to themselves.The same people feel that right now is not the best time to change the policy. Service member have a lot on their plates right now fighting two wars it that a change in the don’t ask don’t tell policy right now is just not the time to do so. There are some who are concerned that if gays were to serve openly then that would result in unwanted sexual advances and assaults. There is objection to gays showing public displays of affection. And that a gays flamboyant behavior would be a distraction. The possibility of a rise in HIV is of concern too.There is a be lief that AIDS is a running epidemic in the gay community and by allowing those to serve would lead to a increase in the HIV cases in the services. Marriage is another issue in that where would the money come from to pay for all the new cases of same sex marriages because married members receive benefits for the spouses and are paid more too. Some members feel that gays would become a protected class and in return would be forced to acknowledge gay pride week and be forced to mingle with them outside of work. With the fear that if they chose no too there would be displiniary actions placed against them.Other feel that the military is the last moral institution in America and feel that allowing gays to serve would destroy that. There are many service members that feel that gays should be allowed to serve openly and the have reasons for their support of the repeal of don’t ask don’t tell policy. Many know that there already are gays serving and by allowing them to acknow ledge their sexual orientation is not going to change anything. There is a feeling that as long as the gay service member can do their job then there is no reason they cannot serve.A person in America has the right to be who they are and by discharging a gay person who only wants to fight and protect the country that provides them that right is wrong. Any American regardless of sexual orientation should be allowed to sever their country. In given that this is a time of war the military needs every service member it can get. Since it is an all volunteer force they should allow anyone who wants to volunteer serve. The military is behind the times when is comes to its policy of homosexuals. It is the only institution that is discriminating openly against gays.It is illegal to fire a person from their jobs for being gays any where else they could be working and the military should be no different. Upon looking at the results of other militaries allowing gays to serve it is scene that it really has no effect on anything what so ever. So there is no reason not to believe that the some non-event would happen in the United States military too. If one is too look on when the military started to allow blacks and white to sever together as well as men and women it is seen that this was not harmful, but actually beneficial to the military as a whole.It is a brden to gays in the military to have to hide their homosexuality and that if there was a repeal to this law then that would liberate them from the fear of discharge. It is not that gays want to be able to tell everyone that they are gay but more that they won’t be afraid of losing their job if it were found out. â€Å"Sexual harassment regulations and sensitivity training would need to be updated, and guidance from leadership would be necessary† if this transition to a openly gay military is to be done (Prakash 92).History is said to repeat itself and if that is the case then there should be no problems associated with the repeal of the â€Å"don’t ask, don’t tell† law. Prior to 1953 blacks were not allowed to serve in the same unit as whites. There are similarities to be found when comparing concerns for when the racial integration of African-Americans was underway and the integration of homosexuals today in that â€Å"military leaders predicted disastrous consequences for unit cohesion, discipline, troop morale, and the achievement of military goals† (Knapp 239).Racial integration was a much bigger deal to the country than that of the integration of gays today. We can see that once racial integration was implemented that it turned out just fine. But it must be acknowledged that blacks are not gays so it won’t be exactly the same type of movement. The integration of women into the military also came out in positive terms. Though gender integration was slower than that of blacks, it is fully integrated today. Today women and blacks make up a sizab le portion of the military and without their service the military would not as strong as it is today.Women and African-Americans have succeeded in the U. S. military so there is no reason to believe that gays and lesbians cannot do the same. Many other nations’ military allow gays to openly serve and they experienced few if any problems because of it. It is such a non existent problem that it is considered a non-issue to most. The major militaries to open to gays are the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Germany, and Israel. When these countries lifted their bans on gays in their militaries they noticed that nothing changed.In a official report released by the Canadian government it was stated that â€Å"Despite all the anxiety that existed through the late 80’s into the early 90’s about the change in policy, here’s what the indicators show—no effect† (Belkin 108). It was thought that maybe a mass coming out would happen but it didn’ t. Most still chose to keep their sexual orientation a private matter and only disclosed it to certain people, much like gays in the corporate world or anywhere else for that matter.The repeal is more for gays not to be discharged or fear being discharged for being gay and less for them to be able to go around and tell everyone that they are gay. There were no noticeable changes to recruiting numbers of the number of people choosing to remain in the military as a result of the lift ban on gays. The United Kingdom show no increase in same sex harassment and most countries commented that harassment die to gender integration was far more pronounced then harassment die to sexual orientation (US Government, DoD 92).This shows one that there is no reason that the integration of gays into the U. S. military will be difficult for its service members to adapt to. It will surely be a non-issue here itself. When looking at the issue of integrating gays into other organizations it is seen that many on the same things occurred that happened in the militaries that did the same. In 1998 an Executive Order was established in the prohibition of discrimination based on the sexual orientation for civilian employees in all Federal agencies. Many states have done the same with state organizations.It is to be noted that employees of these institutions reported that having day and lesbian personnel among their ranks has had no effect on their organization’s performance (US Government, DoD 94). It was found that in some cases allowing gays to be open about their sexual orientation actually improved their performance because now they were not worried about someone finding out they were gay and we able to put more focus on their work. When looking at the issue of privacy that was of a concern to some service members it was seen that in these organizations there was no need for additional accommodations for gays and lesbians.They also say the same thing when it came to gays publi cally announcing their homosexuality. It was found that none really chose to come out to everybody but instead only to certain people. And as far as service member worrying about the â€Å"flamboyant behavior† one might witness in the military by a gay is just not the case in the corporate world. Gays are very well aware of the professionalism associated with a Federal or State job and surely would be the case for any gay military member and would not act in such a way. There are many sides to this debate and given the concerns of each side it should be looked at carefully.When one does observe each side they can see that the concerns of those opposed to the repeal of don’t ask don’t tell are trivial and based on stereotypes and should not be enough to stop and any American from serving their country. The loss of personnel is unacceptable when their service is needed the most in these times of war. When seeing how other militaries favored with their lifting of b ans on gays it can be seen that it was so little a problem and should be the case here. Today’s troops do have a lot going on with fighting two wars and don’t need another thing on their plate, but they do need every helping hand they can get.It most likely would be the case that if repealed many troops would not disclose their sexual orientation so much would not change since a lot of troops know that they are already serving along side gays and lesbians. When weighing the pros and cons of this issue one shouldn’t be able to infringe on a American’s desire to serve their country based on their sexual orientation. It be great if these brave gay and lesbian women didn’t have to worry about their military careers coming to an end of they were or someone were to disclose their sexual orientation that way they would be able to fully concentrate on their mission. Gays in the Military Steven Danielson Gays in the Military A hot topic in the news these days is whether gays should be allowed to serve openly in the military. Many issues have arisen from allowing or not allowing gays to serve openly. Those opposed are concerned that gays would cause a break down in unit cohesion, a rise in assaults or violence, a drop in recruitment or retention, and feel that since America is currently fighting two wars that right now is not a good time to implement a new policy when it is felt that the current one is working just fine. Numerous studies have been conducted on this issue.Through poll, surveys, observing other countries that allow gays to serve openly and even by checking history it is felt that this would not be the case. Given all the evidence that points to allowing gays to serve openly outweigh any negatives that would possibly come about. Gays make up a portion of key personnel that is sorely needed in this time of war especially with a all volunteer force. The fa ct that military personal are being lost due to this law not only is harmful to military it also wrong on that these gays are having their basic human rights violated by the very country they are trying to protect.This has been an issue within the military since the very beginnings of its establishment of this nation since â€Å"The discharge of military personnel for homosexual behavior dates from at least the continental army of the revolutionary period† (Rayside 258). The military had a strict no gays allowed to serve for many years and it wasn’t until former president Clinton raised the issue in his campaign for presidency in 1991 did it come onto the radar of the news and on the minds of the American people.He promised to fight to have it so gays could serve in the armed forces of the United States. When he was elected president he set out to change things. Then President made a effort to change the policy but â€Å"Clinton was persuaded by the military, mobilize d by Chief of Staff Colin Powell, not to fulfill his campaign promise to allow gays and leasbians to serve openly† (Pencak 178). He was unable to change the policy drastically and had to settle for a compromise with the military and congress. This is where we got the still standing don’t ask don’t tell policy.This new law allowed gays to serve but they were required to keep their sexual orientation private and by going public with it would end in discharge from the service. The new policy also covered any homosexual actions stating that â€Å"A service member who engages in, attempts to engage in, or solicits a homosexual act is to be discharged, unless he can prove that such an act was an aberration and is unlikely to recur† (Hillman 264). If they were to state that they were gays or attempt to marry someone of the same sex this would too lead to termination.The phrase â€Å"don’t ask don’t tell† comes from the fact that no one will e ver ask if you are gays; as the military used to screen potential future military members by asking them before they joined. The don’t ask tell part comes from the fact that a gay service member must not tell anyone that they are homosexual. Later â€Å"don’t pursue† would added to it, meaning that the military would not pursue a suspected gay member as long as they didn’t tell. This was established out of fear that people would conduct â€Å"witch hunts† for gay members.Since the 1980s over 32,000 active duty members have been discharged for being gay. This is a large percent of people who were willing to serve but through no fault of their own we told they could not and were sent on their way. That is 32,000 already fully trained personnel that had to be replaced costing the country millions of dollars. There had been cases were people with key jobs being discharged as in a few Arabic translators be discharge when as of now they are in great dema nd. Discharging these personal is non sense. Not only is it violating their rights, â€Å"U.S. law prohibits discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, race, or gender with regard to the rights of citizenship, the military maintains policies that are opposed to this most-basic American ideal† but it is putting this country and other service members at risk cause translators are a key competent of fighting the war on terror (Issit 4). How can a military succeed in winning the hearts and minds of people they cannot even talk with? The number of service members discharged each year in the United States is approximately 1,000-1,200.All of which are needed to be replaced with new people who require training. Losing the experience of those who were serving longer period of times is detrimental to the military because they possess the knowledge and skills required to accomplish the mission and have the ability to pass they knowledge on to new personnel. The amount of money r equired to replace them is enough that any tax paying American would be upset about. There are many reasons for someone to be discharged, from drug use to medical reasons.By changing this law the country would be losing a third less personnel each year. The American public is split on the issue. With about 60% saying that gays should be allowed to serve and 40% feeling they should be able to serve openly. A service wide survey was conducted asking the opinions of those who would be serving side by side with gays. The views of current service member varied much like that of American civilians. But they had reason for their concern when it came to those who opposed it. They were concerns about privacy issues.They were not comfortable with living with a known homosexual. The military does not allow males and females to share a room and there is concern having a same sex and gays living together. This might lead to a change in housing policy and bathroom faculties in having to separate men and women and gay men and lesbian women. This would lead to having to make new restrooms and building of new living quarters for gays. With another concern being the effect on Unit cohesion which can be broken down in two parts; task cohesion and social cohesion.Task cohesion referring to the ability to work together effectively in order to accomplish a mission and social cohesion referring to the emotional bonds and trust among unit members (US Government, DoD 102). The military is worried that gays would become a distraction for straights and this would disrupt the comradely between troops, all of which is very important in a wartime setting â€Å"because soldiers must withstand the tremendous emotional strain of seeing many of their friends brutally killed by the enemy† (Wilson 2). There are also religious and moral issues that have been brought up.The fact is that most religions say the homosexuality is wrong and by making personnel who are religious serve with gays i nfringes on the religious beliefs and the right to religious freedom in the military. Some feel that being gay is just wrong and do no want to be force to work alongside or live with someone of is known to be gay. Some also believe that don’t ask don’t tell law is working just fine and that it should just stay that way feeling that gays can serve but they just have to keep their sexuality to themselves.The same people feel that right now is not the best time to change the policy. Service member have a lot on their plates right now fighting two wars it that a change in the don’t ask don’t tell policy right now is just not the time to do so. There are some who are concerned that if gays were to serve openly then that would result in unwanted sexual advances and assaults. There is objection to gays showing public displays of affection. And that a gays flamboyant behavior would be a distraction. The possibility of a rise in HIV is of concern too.There is a be lief that AIDS is a running epidemic in the gay community and by allowing those to serve would lead to a increase in the HIV cases in the services. Marriage is another issue in that where would the money come from to pay for all the new cases of same sex marriages because married members receive benefits for the spouses and are paid more too. Some members feel that gays would become a protected class and in return would be forced to acknowledge gay pride week and be forced to mingle with them outside of work. With the fear that if they chose no too there would be displiniary actions placed against them.Other feel that the military is the last moral institution in America and feel that allowing gays to serve would destroy that. There are many service members that feel that gays should be allowed to serve openly and the have reasons for their support of the repeal of don’t ask don’t tell policy. Many know that there already are gays serving and by allowing them to acknow ledge their sexual orientation is not going to change anything. There is a feeling that as long as the gay service member can do their job then there is no reason they cannot serve.A person in America has the right to be who they are and by discharging a gay person who only wants to fight and protect the country that provides them that right is wrong. Any American regardless of sexual orientation should be allowed to sever their country. In given that this is a time of war the military needs every service member it can get. Since it is an all volunteer force they should allow anyone who wants to volunteer serve. The military is behind the times when is comes to its policy of homosexuals. It is the only institution that is discriminating openly against gays.It is illegal to fire a person from their jobs for being gays any where else they could be working and the military should be no different. Upon looking at the results of other militaries allowing gays to serve it is scene that it really has no effect on anything what so ever. So there is no reason not to believe that the some non-event would happen in the United States military too. If one is too look on when the military started to allow blacks and white to sever together as well as men and women it is seen that this was not harmful, but actually beneficial to the military as a whole.It is a brden to gays in the military to have to hide their homosexuality and that if there was a repeal to this law then that would liberate them from the fear of discharge. It is not that gays want to be able to tell everyone that they are gay but more that they won’t be afraid of losing their job if it were found out. â€Å"Sexual harassment regulations and sensitivity training would need to be updated, and guidance from leadership would be necessary† if this transition to a openly gay military is to be done (Prakash 92).History is said to repeat itself and if that is the case then there should be no problems associated with the repeal of the â€Å"don’t ask, don’t tell† law. Prior to 1953 blacks were not allowed to serve in the same unit as whites. There are similarities to be found when comparing concerns for when the racial integration of African-Americans was underway and the integration of homosexuals today in that â€Å"military leaders predicted disastrous consequences for unit cohesion, discipline, troop morale, and the achievement of military goals† (Knapp 239).Racial integration was a much bigger deal to the country than that of the integration of gays today. We can see that once racial integration was implemented that it turned out just fine. But it must be acknowledged that blacks are not gays so it won’t be exactly the same type of movement. The integration of women into the military also came out in positive terms. Though gender integration was slower than that of blacks, it is fully integrated today. Today women and blacks make up a sizab le portion of the military and without their service the military would not as strong as it is today.Women and African-Americans have succeeded in the U. S. military so there is no reason to believe that gays and lesbians cannot do the same. Many other nations’ military allow gays to openly serve and they experienced few if any problems because of it. It is such a non existent problem that it is considered a non-issue to most. The major militaries to open to gays are the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Germany, and Israel. When these countries lifted their bans on gays in their militaries they noticed that nothing changed.In a official report released by the Canadian government it was stated that â€Å"Despite all the anxiety that existed through the late 80’s into the early 90’s about the change in policy, here’s what the indicators show—no effect† (Belkin 108). It was thought that maybe a mass coming out would happen but it didn’ t. Most still chose to keep their sexual orientation a private matter and only disclosed it to certain people, much like gays in the corporate world or anywhere else for that matter.The repeal is more for gays not to be discharged or fear being discharged for being gay and less for them to be able to go around and tell everyone that they are gay. There were no noticeable changes to recruiting numbers of the number of people choosing to remain in the military as a result of the lift ban on gays. The United Kingdom show no increase in same sex harassment and most countries commented that harassment die to gender integration was far more pronounced then harassment die to sexual orientation (US Government, DoD 92).This shows one that there is no reason that the integration of gays into the U. S. military will be difficult for its service members to adapt to. It will surely be a non-issue here itself. When looking at the issue of integrating gays into other organizations it is seen that many on the same things occurred that happened in the militaries that did the same. In 1998 an Executive Order was established in the prohibition of discrimination based on the sexual orientation for civilian employees in all Federal agencies. Many states have done the same with state organizations.It is to be noted that employees of these institutions reported that having day and lesbian personnel among their ranks has had no effect on their organization’s performance (US Government, DoD 94). It was found that in some cases allowing gays to be open about their sexual orientation actually improved their performance because now they were not worried about someone finding out they were gay and we able to put more focus on their work. When looking at the issue of privacy that was of a concern to some service members it was seen that in these organizations there was no need for additional accommodations for gays and lesbians.They also say the same thing when it came to gays publi cally announcing their homosexuality. It was found that none really chose to come out to everybody but instead only to certain people. And as far as service member worrying about the â€Å"flamboyant behavior† one might witness in the military by a gay is just not the case in the corporate world. Gays are very well aware of the professionalism associated with a Federal or State job and surely would be the case for any gay military member and would not act in such a way. There are many sides to this debate and given the concerns of each side it should be looked at carefully.When one does observe each side they can see that the concerns of those opposed to the repeal of don’t ask don’t tell are trivial and based on stereotypes and should not be enough to stop and any American from serving their country. The loss of personnel is unacceptable when their service is needed the most in these times of war. When seeing how other militaries favored with their lifting of b ans on gays it can be seen that it was so little a problem and should be the case here. Today’s troops do have a lot going on with fighting two wars and don’t need another thing on their plate, but they do need every helping hand they can get.It most likely would be the case that if repealed many troops would not disclose their sexual orientation so much would not change since a lot of troops know that they are already serving along side gays and lesbians. When weighing the pros and cons of this issue one shouldn’t be able to infringe on a American’s desire to serve their country based on their sexual orientation. It be great if these brave gay and lesbian women didn’t have to worry about their military careers coming to an end of they were or someone were to disclose their sexual orientation that way they would be able to fully concentrate on their mission.